High levels of cell-free hemoglobin and iron in cerebral thrombi of pre-Omicron COVID-19 stroke patients: novel drivers of SARS-CoV-2–induced prothrombotic state

Abstract

The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the hypercoagulable state and thrombotic events associated with COVID-19 remain incompletely understood. To investigate prothrombotic alterations during SARS-CoV-2 infection, we performed an exploratory and integrated analysis of cerebral thrombi retrieved, during the first wave of the pandemic, by mechanical thrombectomy from stroke patients with (n=6) and without (n=6) COVID-19. We combined histological and ultrastructural assessment with quantitative proteomics and elemental profiling to identify differences in cellular organization and in protein and metal composition. Immunohistochemical quantification revealed a trend toward increased macrophage abundance, a more diffuse CD68⁺ staining pattern, and reduced platelet content in COVID-19 thrombi. In contrast, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) burden, neutrophil number, and erythrocyte content did not differ significantly between groups. Transmission electron microscopy showed a disorganized ultrastructural fibrillar network in thrombi from COVID-19 stroke patients, consistent with the irregular and less densely packed extracellular matrix observed by Masson's trichrome staining. Furthermore, quantitative proteomics by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) identified 48 differentially expressed proteins among 720 shared proteins, with marked upregulation of hemoglobin subunits (α, β, γ, and δ), haptoglobin, biliverdin reductase and redox-regulating proteins, alongside downregulation of platelet-related proteins in COVID-19 thrombi. Total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF) confirmed increased iron levels in COVID-19-associated thrombi. Notably, glycophorin A immunostaining did not indicate increased erythrocyte abundance, and erythrocyte structural proteins were not differentially expressed in proteomic analysis, suggesting that hemoglobin and iron were largely present in a cell-free form within the retrieved thrombi of COVID-19 stroke patients. In addition, acute-phase reactants, classical complement components, and immunoglobulins were detected exclusively in COVID-19 samples, consistent with a distinctive immune-inflammatory and oxidative signature. Overall, these findings support a novel pathophysiological mechanism underlying COVID-19-associated hypercoagulability and thrombosis, involving elevated circulating cell-free hemoglobin and increased iron content. Furthermore, this study highlights the potential contribution of hemoglobin/iron-related processes to the COVID-19 prothrombotic state and may provide molecular targets for future therapeutic strategies.