From natural vesicles to intelligent carriers: the metabolic basis and biomedical applications of lemon-derived extracellular vesicles

Abstract

Lemon-derived extracellular vesicles (LEVs) are a promising class of plant-based nanocarriers that have gained increasing attention for their biomedical potential. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the isolation, characterization, composition, and therapeutic applications of LEVs. We discuss various purification strategies—including ultracentrifugation, density gradient centrifugation, electrophoresis, dialysis, and ultrafiltration—and highlight key physical and biochemical properties of LEVs, such as their lipid, protein, nucleic acid, and metabolite profiles. LEVs exhibit notable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, and tissue-repair activities, demonstrating efficacy in models of diabetic wound healing, inflammatory bowel disease, cancer, kidney stones, and neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, their biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and ease of modification make them attractive candidates for engineered drug delivery systems. Despite their promise, challenges remain in standardization, scalable production, and clinical translation. Future efforts should focus on establishing reproducible protocols, elucidating molecular mechanisms, and advancing preclinical validation to harness LEVs as innovative tools in nanomedicine and regenerative therapy.