Where tourism divides: economic prosperity and disparity in the Kalash Valley

Abstract

Challenging the assumption that religious minorities are uniformly disadvantaged, this study examines how ethnic tourism in Pakistan’s Kalash Valley is associated with internally stratified livelihood opportunities and household living standards. Guided by Van den Berghe’s theory of ethnic division of labor, the core–periphery model, and household livelihood frameworks, we use stratified random sampling and econometric analysis to compare Kafir-Kalash and Muslim-Kalash households across tourism and non-tourism valleys and across peak and off-peak seasons. Findings indicate that Kafir-Kalash households, whose perceived cultural authenticity is more closely aligned with the tourist gaze, report greater access to tourism-related livelihoods and higher household expenditure than their Muslim co-ethnics. These disparities are spatially conditioned: households in tourism-centric Bumburet and Rumbur are more favorably positioned than those in peripheral Birir, where tourism infrastructure and market opportunities are more limited. Seasonal patterns further suggest that tourism-associated expenditure gains are concentrated in peak periods, raising implications for off-season welfare and sustainable livelihood planning. Overall, the study shows how symbolic religious identity and geographic access jointly condition the distribution of tourism-associated benefits within a minority community, and it offers evidence-based policy recommendations for more inclusive and sustainable tourism development.