Work Engagement in an Always-On Work Culture: A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

Digital connectivity, remote and hybrid work, and expectations of constant availability have made “always-on” work cultures a central feature of contemporary organising, yet work engagement research has only partially incorporated these conditions into its core theoretical frameworks. We conducted a systematic literature review of empirical studies on work and employee engagement in always-on contexts in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The Web of Science Core Collection and Scopus were searched for English-language, peer-reviewed articles published between 2015 and 2025 that examined engagement in work settings and always-on constructs. Studies involving non-work populations, studies that did not examine antecedents of engagement, studies unrelated to an always-on context, and non-empirical studies were excluded. The final sample comprised 36 studies. Risk of bias was formally assessed using Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal tools. We used narrative synthesis, frequency analysis, and bibliometric analysis to identify antecedents, theoretical frameworks, and boundary-related constructs. Job resources emerged as the dominant antecedent category. The Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model was the predominant explanatory framework, while key boundary mechanisms—psychological detachment, boundary control, and the right to disconnect—were rarely operationalised as distinct variables. We conceptualise these mechanisms as boundary resources and propose a boundary-sensitive extension of the JD-R model. The evidence is limited by conceptual dispersion, the under-measurement of always-on constructs, and the predominance of cross-sectional studies. The review was retrospectively registered in the OSF Registries on 23 September 2026 using the Open-Ended Registration template.