Digital literacy shapes AI chatbot adoption, barriers, and performance outcomes in football coaches: a multi-method analytical study

Abstract

Abstract The adoption of AI chatbots among football coaches is primarily determined by their digital literacy. An international cross-sectional online survey of 213 professional coaches measured adoption and digital literacy using a psychometrically evaluated 31-item index. Data were analyzed using mediation models, ROC curves, ANOVA, and cluster analysis. Four key findings emerged. First, digital literacy completely mediated the negative effect of age on adoption (indirect effect ab = − 0.31). Second, a critical competency threshold of 4.5/7 was identified, with adoption probability rising from 28% below to 78% above this threshold (χ 2 (1) = 48.7, p < 0.001). Third, the perception of a “cultural barrier” among highly experienced coaches (> 15 years) was fully explained by lower digital literacy (indirect effect ab = 0.38). Finally, cluster analysis revealed a distinct “AI Value Chain” user group (10%), which reported significantly higher satisfaction (M = 8.9, F(2,121) = 15.8, p < 0.001) and time savings exceeding three hours per week. These results underscore that foundational digital competency, more than age or experience, is crucial for successful technology integration. Coach education should therefore prioritise developing core digital literacy and integrate threshold-based learning approaches.