Integrating HAPS, LEO, and terrestrial networks: A cost-performance study for IoT connectivity

Abstract

Background High-Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS) and Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites are emerging as alternative or complementary solutions for extending Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity, particularly in areas where terrestrial infrastructure is sparse, unavailable, or temporarily disrupted. Methods This work evaluates transmission erasure probability under multiple network configurations, including standalone HAPS systems, standalone LEO satellite systems, and hybrid architectures integrating aerial and terrestrial infrastructures. The analysis accounts for practical deployment factors such as LEO satellite mobility, elevation angle variations, and distinct fading models for terrestrial and non-terrestrial links. In addition, LR-FHSS (Long-Range Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) uplink access is assessed as a representative IoT use case to examine scalability across different scenarios. Results Simulation results show that HAPS can effectively complement sparse terrestrial networks and improve satellite-based performance under specific operating conditions. The results also indicate that hybrid architectures can enhance IoT connectivity by exploiting the complementary characteristics of terrestrial, aerial, and satellite systems. From an economic perspective, considering both capital and operational expenditures, HAPS solutions present higher costs but remain within the same order of magnitude as LEO satellite and terrestrial alternatives. Conclusions HAPS are a promising option for supporting IoT connectivity in remote, underserved, and infrastructure-limited environments. Although their cost may be higher than some conventional alternatives, their technical benefits and deployment flexibility make them competitive in specific use cases, particularly disaster recovery scenarios where rapid and resilient connectivity is required.