Fathering insufficiency and its association with children’s emotional well-being: a latent profile analysis

Abstract

Abstract Background Father absence has become an increasingly concerning social issue. The physical absence of fathers often leads to a lack of paternal functioning, but the two are not entirely equivalent. Therefore, this study coined the term “fathering insufficiency” to describe insufficiency in paternal functioning. Objective This study had three objectives: (1) to identify the types of fathering insufficiency using latent profile analysis; (2) to explore the proportion of fathering insufficiency in different family structures; and (3) to compare differences in children’s emotional well-being across different types of fathering insufficiency. Methods A total of 3,199 junior middle school students were surveyed using the Inventory of Father Involvement (short version), the Inventory of Mother Involvement, and the Emotional Experience of Well-being Questionnaire. Results Children were categorized into four classes: moderate parental functioning (M), high parental functioning (H), mild parenting insufficiency (MI), and fathering-lack-high-mothering (L-H). Both the MI and L-H classes were characterized as experiencing fathering insufficiency. The proportion of fathering insufficiency observed in the present sample was 21.4% in dual-parent co-resident families, 29.9% in left-behind families, and 66.1% in divorced families. The emotional well-being of children in the L-H class was significantly lower than that in the M class, but significantly higher than that in the MI class. Conclusions Both the MI and L-H classes exhibited characteristics of fathering insufficiency, with different patterns showing distinct associations with children’s emotional well-being. Parenting programs can offer family education on fathering insufficiency. Fathers should use fragmented time and digital tools to raise engagement. Couples need constructive conflict management and careful divorce consideration.