Do elite soccer players meet nutritional requirements? A scoping review and meta-analysis

Abstract

This scoping review and meta-analysis synthesised current evidence on energy and macronutrient intake and energy expenditure in elite male and female soccer players. Despite established nutritional guidelines, concerns persist regarding chronic low energy availability and its implications for both performance and health. A total of 57 studies involving professional and semi-professional athletes aged 16 years and older were included. Meta-analyses were conducted for energy intake and total energy expenditure, with analyses performed separately for male and female players. Evidence was also synthesised for dietary intake, including carbohydrate, protein, and fat consumption. Energy intake and expenditure comparisons were based on 11 studies in male players and 6 in female players. Across both sexes, findings consistently demonstrated negative energy balance. Male players exhibited significant intake deficits relative to expenditure, averaging up to − 741 kcal . day⁻ 1 , while female players showed deficits of − 544 kcal . day⁻ 1 (both p < 0.01). Even after adjustment for estimated underreporting (~ 19%), substantial energy gaps persisted, particularly among males. Carbohydrate intake was derived from 26 studies in male players (pre-season: 5.42 g . kg⁻ 1. day⁻ 1 ; in-season: 4.62 g . kg⁻ 1. day⁻ 1 ) and 7 studies in female players (3.79 g . kg⁻ 1. day⁻ 1 ). Protein intake was based on 25 studies in male players (1.78 g . kg⁻ 1. day⁻ 1 ) and 8 studies in female players (1.57 g . kg⁻ 1. day⁻ 1 ). Overall, carbohydrate and protein intakes generally aligned with the lower end of UEFA recommended ranges, with more pronounced inadequacies observed in female players, while fat intake was consistent with established nutritional guidelines. These findings emphasise the need for more rigorous, sex-specific investigations to underpin evidence-based nutritional strategies in elite soccer, thereby bridging the gap between research and practice while safeguarding both performance and athlete well-being.