Unconventional BiocatalyticStrategies Orchestratethe Synthesis of the Nucleoside Analog Sinefungin

Abstract

Abstract Sinefungin is a potent nucleoside antimetabolite of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). Since its discovery in the 1970s, sinefungin has generated significant scientific interest owing to its role as a bioisostere of SAM and its broad range of biological activities. Despite considerable efforts to uncover the enzymes responsible for sinefungin production in the following years, its biosynthesis remained unclear for decades. Here, we characterize the complete sinefungin biosynthetic gene cluster (sin BGC) from Streptomyces incarnatus NRRL 8089. In vitro and in vivo analyses support a recent finding that the defining carbon–carbon (C–C) bond is formed not by a long-hypothesized PLP-dependent process, but by a vitamin B12-dependent radical SAM enzyme. We provide direct mechanistic evidence, via isotope-labeled products, that the adenosyl group of sinefungin originates from adenosylcobalamin and is atypically consumed via a homolytic SH2 substitution reaction. We also characterize two peptide aminoacyl-tRNA ligases (PEARLs) that append alanines onto the nucleoside scaffold using tRNA-activated amino acids. The PEARLs act directly on small molecules rather than macromolecular substrates, with one PEARL capable of iterative elongation. In addition, we perform in-vitro substrate profiling of several sin BGC-encoded enzymes. We reveal that multiple enzymes show specificity toward phosphorylated intermediates, including the earliest-acting PEARL enzyme. These observations provide an explanation for a cryptic phosphorylation-dephosphorylation strategy observed in the pathway, as they prevent the formation of the highly toxic sinefungin inside the cell. Finally, we leverage these enzymes in a reduced multi-enzyme cascade to biosynthesize sinefungin. Together, these findings expand upon our current knowledge of radical-mediated C–C bond formation and PEARL enzyme catalysis, unlocking biocatalytic possibilities to produce amino acid-nucleoside conjugates.