Technological variability in Etruscan amphora production at Vulci: Evidence from petrographic and compositional analysis

Abstract

This study investigates the production of Etruscan transport amphorae from Vulci (central Italy) through an integrated programme of ceramic petrography and bulk compositional analysis (ICP-MS). A total of 48 amphora samples, collected during two sampling campaigns (2021 and 2023), and 12 fragments of kiln-related reference materials were analysed to evaluate provenance and technological variability. Petrographic analysis of the full assemblage identifies two major fabric groups, alongside a small number of outliers. A representative subset of samples was further analysed by ICP-MS to characterise compositional variability. The results show clear differences in paste preparation, particularly in the use of volcanic inclusions and lithic components, while maintaining overall compositional coherence. Compositional data broadly correspond with petrographic groupings and indicate the presence of three compositional groups, of which two represent dominant patterns. The correspondence between amphorae and reference materials indicates that these groups are consistent with local production, suggesting that variability reflects alternative technological choices rather than distinct provenance. Methodologically, the study demonstrates the value of kiln-related reference materials as proxies for locally exploited raw material signatures where natural clay sources are inaccessible.