Peer to multi peer energy trading for renewable communities using blockchain smart contracts and social welfare allocation

Abstract

H 2 refuelling corridors plus EV mobility services require joint handling of station scheduling, price-sensitive mobility response, multi-carrier dispatch, plus carbon-accounting rules. Prior studies have improved H 2 -station planning, carbon-aware scheduling, plus incentive pricing; however, verified settlement, welfare allocation, plus mobility-carrier coupling often remain compartmentalized. This paper develops a Stackelberg coordination framework for a carbon-constrained multi-carrier hub covering EVs plus HFCVs. IESO acts as upper-level coordinator, whereas ES, LA, plus VA adjust supply, demand response, storage, charging, discharging, plus H 2 -refuelling decisions. Formulation links power, heat, gas, H 2 , power-to-gas conversion, carbon capture, stepped carbon trading, traffic-grid matching, plus travel-chain-based demand prediction. Resulting exchange logic is interpreted as peer-to-multi-peer trading, with blockchain smart contracts recording price-service commitments; social-welfare allocation is measured through participant-level cost redistribution plus emission responsibility. A hybrid jellyfish-search/mathematical-programming procedure solves follower-pricing problem. Tests on an extended IEEE 118-bus power network, a 6-node thermal network, plus a mobility-carrier interface show that Stackelberg coordination reduces LA cost by 27.34% plus VA cost by 13.19% relative to benchmark. Total carbon emissions decrease by 5.57%, from 680,490 kg to 642,610 kg. Scenario analysis indicates ES-side carbon trading delivers largest emission reduction, whereas orderly charging mainly improves VA economics. Findings indicate price-mediated peer-to-multi-peer coordination can align mobility-service settlement, participant welfare, plus carbon-aware operation in coupled H 2 -EV transport infrastructures.