Formulation Optimization of Cladophora glomerata (Kai)-Based 3D Food Inks Using Xanthan Gum and Konjac Gum for Dysphagia-Friendly Applications

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) food printing has emerged as a promising approach for producing texture-modified foods for individuals with dysphagia. However, developing stable food inks from freshwater macroalgae remains challenging due to the need for suitable rheological, structural, and textural properties to ensure printability and swallowing safety. The current study optimized the formulation of Cladophora glomerata (Kai)-based 3D food inks using xanthan gum (XG) and konjac gum (KG) for dysphagia-friendly applications. A response surface methodology (RSM) optimal design with 16 formulations evaluated the effects of XG and KG on hardness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, print accuracy, deformation, and syneresis. Formulations were characterized for rheology, microstructure, and dysphagia suitability according to Japanese texture criteria, and UDF and IDDSI frameworks. The RSM models adequately described hydrocolloid-response relationships (R2 = 0.8456–0.9750). Selected formulation containing ≥6% hydrocolloid, particularly XG:KG ratios between 1:2 to 3:1 demonstrated superior print accuracy (>94%) and met all three dysphagia classifications. Numerical optimization predicted an optimum formulation of 5.263% XG and 3.188% KG with an overall desirability of 0.91. These findings provide a formulation strategy for developing sustainable, dysphagia-friendly 3D-printed foods from C. glomerata.