Review on chemical profiling, isolation methods, total phenolic and flavonoid contents and pharmaceutical applications of Caesalpinia sappan L. (2016–2025)

Abstract

Caesalpinia sappan L. a member of the Fabaceae family commonly known as Sappanwood, originates from Southeast Asia and the Indian Subcontinent and represents an important biological reservoir of structurally diverse secondary metabolites. It has historically been valued for its red dye, brazilein, produced by oxidation of its precursor, brazilin. Here, its phytochemical profile, advanced isolation strategies and biological activities are systematically compiled. Phytochemical analyses showed a wide diversity of homoisoflavonoids (brazilin, brazilein, protosappanin A and sappanone (A), chalcones (sappanchalcone) and cassane-type diterpenoids. We critically review modern purification strategies designed to overcome descriptive restrictions, namely reversed-phase preparative HPLC and support-free High-Speed Counter-Current Chromatography (HSCCC) modes optimised for compound stability. Pharmacological synthesis supports multi-targeted therapeutic potencies including antibacterial and antiviral efficacy against Gram-positive, Gram-negative and viral targets. Additionally, C. sappan L. showed anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antioxidant effects, as well as oncogene suppression in breast, lung, and colorectal cancers. Finally, we briefly discuss preclinical limitations and suggest strategic paths to accelerate translational pharmaceutical development.