Virtual laboratories in STEM and health higher education: A European scoping review of transferable practices

Abstract

Virtual laboratories (VLs) are increasingly used to support practical learning in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and health higher education, yet evidence on how they are implemented, and what makes their use effective and transferable, remains fragmented across national contexts. This study examines their implementation through a European scoping review. Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, 1189 records were identified across 12 European countries. After deduplication and eligibility assessment, 34 unique empirical studies published between 2020 and 2024 met the inclusion criteria and formed the final review corpus. The review synthesises evidence across five interconnected dimensions of VL implementation, including flexible learning, pedagogical design, educational outcomes and digital competency development, accessibility and inclusion, and institutional readiness. The findings demonstrate that VLs enhance practical learning by enabling flexible access, repeated experimentation, and active engagement with scientific and clinical processes. Beyond supporting disciplinary knowledge, they contribute to the development of digital and problem-solving competencies aligned with contemporary professional demands. However, their effectiveness depends less on technological sophistication than on pedagogically grounded integration, educator preparedness, and institutional support. Persistent challenges remain in ensuring equitable access and sustainable implementation. Unlike prior reviews that treat VLs primarily as technological interventions, this study reframes them as pedagogically driven innovations and identifies practices that are transferable across institutional and national contexts. These findings, drawn from diverse European higher education systems, offer educators, institutions, and policymakers practical lessons for designing resilient, technology-enhanced practical learning beyond the European context.