Stimuli-Responsive Controlled-Release Nanopesticides: Current Advances, Mechanisms, and Future Outlook

Abstract

Abstract Stimuli-responsive nanopesticides couple nanocarriers with environmental or biological triggers to improve the spatiotemporal delivery of active ingredients. This review evaluates polymeric, lipid-based, metal–organic framework, and inorganic carriers and compares release mechanisms triggered by temperature, pH, redox conditions, light, enzymes, magnetic fields, and multiple stimuli. Across reported systems, responsive formulations generally improve active-ingredient stability, foliar retention, target-site release, and pest-control efficacy while reducing off-target exposure relative to conventional formulations. However, performance is strongly influenced by carrier composition, trigger specificity, field heterogeneity, storage stability, and manufacturing reproducibility. We further assess RNA-pesticide delivery, commercial products, field-validation cases, environmental fate, and regulatory testing needs. Future development should prioritize scalable synthesis, standardized physicochemical and ecotoxicological evaluation, realistic field trials, and cost-effective multi-responsive designs that deliver measurable agronomic benefits without increasing long-term environmental risk.