3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY IN PHARMACEUTICAL DRUG DELIVERY: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, INSTRUMENTATION, ARTIFICIAL INTELLEGENCE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, commonly referred to as additive manufacturing, has emerged as an innovative approach in the pharmaceutical field, particularly for the development of personalized drug delivery systems. In this technology, pharmaceutical materials are processed in successive layers to generate dosage forms with predetermined dimensions, structures, drug content, and release characteristics. Several techniques, including fused deposition modelling (FDM), stereolithography (SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), inkjet printing, powder-based printing, and semi-solid extrusion, have been explored for manufacturing customized pharmaceutical products.[1–6] These approaches have enable the development of a wide variety of drug delivery systems, including immediaterelease, sustained-release, delayed-release, pulsatile-release, transdermal, vaginal, implantable, and combination dosage forms.[2–8] The regulatory approval of Spritam® (levetiracetam) represented an important milestone in pharmaceutical 3D printing and encouraged further research into patient-specific drug delivery.[3,4] The major benefits of this technology include flexible dose adjustment, complex product design, controlled drug release, incorporation of multiple active pharmaceutical ingredients, and potential for on-demand production.[1–8] Nevertheless, limitations associated with equipment cost, material selection, drug stability, process reproducibility, scale-up, quality assurance, and regulatory compliance continue to restrict widespread implementation. The incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies may further improve formulation development, printing-process optimization, real-time monitoring, and product-quality prediction. This review discusses the fundamental principles, major printing methods, instrumentation, benefits, limitations, pharmaceutical applications, current products, and future opportunities of 3D printing, with particular emphasis on the emerging role of AI in pharmaceutical manufacturing.