Three-Dimensional Printing and Extended Reality in Surgical Planning and Simulation of Cardiovascular Disease

Abstract

Recent technological advancements have significantly transformed the diagnosis and management of cardiovascular disease. Traditional reliance on two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) imaging has been enhanced by emerging 3D visualization technologies, particularly 3D printing and extended reality (XR). 3D printing enables the creation of patient-specific physical models that accurately replicate cardiovascular anatomy and pathology. These models play a crucial role in surgical plan-ning, simulation of interventional procedures, medical education, and patient commu-nication, offering tangible insights into complex cardiovascular structures. XR, on the other hand, provides an immersive 3D environment for exploring volumetric imaging data with interaction with the physical world. This enhances the understanding of in-tricate cardiovascular anatomy and pathology, supporting more informed clinical deci-sion-making and pre-surgical planning. This review explores the current applications of 3D printing and XR in cardiovascular surgery planning and intervention, emphasizing their potential to address challenges in planning complex procedures. Limitations and future directions for research and clinical integration are also discussed.