Forensic facial approximation methodologies applied to the Brazilian population: a scoping review

Abstract

This scoping review aimed to map forensic facial approximation (FFA) methodologies applied to the Brazilian population. The protocol was registered in the Open Science Framework and adopted the following structure: Population, human; Concept, FFA methodologies; and Context, studies conducted in the Brazilian population. Searches were conducted in seven databases and grey literature up to December 2025. No restrictions were applied regarding publication date or language. The data collected included FFA methodology, sample size, sex, age, region of the country, skull acquisition method, reconstructed facial region, anatomical landmarks, cranial analysis, and facial reconstruction software. Thirty studies proposing new or adapted methodologies were included, totaling 3,239 evaluated samples, predominantly from adult populations and Southeast Brazil (83.3%). Craniofacial structures were obtained mainly through cone-beam computed tomography and facial reconstructions or assessment of facial soft tissue thickness (FSTT). Of these, 23 focused on FSTT and the inclusion of cutaneous appendages, while 7 investigated the dimensions and projection of the nose, mouth, and ears. The studies also examined variations according to sex, age, skeletal class, skin color, and nutritional status. Population biases and the persistence of few studies on the nose, eyes, mouth, and ears remain central challenges, as does the standardization of landmarks and the validation of FSTT tables. Thus, it is observed that the growth of the country's scientific output in FFA does not yet eliminate critical methodological gaps.