Uneven Progress: Marital Status and The Motherhood Penalty in The United States, 1978–2023

Abstract

Parenthood accounts for most of the current gender earnings gap in the United States. While many factors explain mothers’ lower earnings compared to fathers’, employment outcomes play a key role: after childbirth, mothers are more likely to stay at home for an extended period, and mothers are more likely to adjust labor force participation or work hours in response to childcare needs at home. This article contributes to this literature by documenting differences in the probability of exiting employment between mothers and fathers between 1978 and 2023 using linked Current Population Survey microdata. Findings show that while married mothers have had some success in closing the exit gap with fathers, single mothers have not. Using a Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition, results show that a substantial amount of the difference in employment exit probability between married and single mothers is unexplained by the model’s covariates.HIGHLIGHTS In the US, mothers remain more likely than fathers to leave employment.The mother–father employment gap has narrowed but remains significant.Married mothers have made greater gains in employment stability.Never-married mothers face the highest risk of employment exits.Policies supporting childcare and job stability may reduce the motherhood penalty.