International Copper Association

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of a 630 kVA Liquid-Immersed Distribution Transformer

This paper discusses a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) carried out on 630 kVA liquid-immersed distribution transformers with different winding conductor materials and energy performance levels. The LCA methodology for power transformers is still under development. Most LC...

Derivation of a Bioavailability-Based Environmental Quality Standard for Copper in European Freshwaters under the Water Framework Directive using an updated methodology

Copper (Cu) is a river basin specific pollutant under the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). Compliance assessment under the WFD should be based on a tiered approach that considers a bioavailability correction integrating local physico-chemistry conditions. The existing pr...