Timo Toikko

Decoding availability of services: interplay of income inequality and intergovernmental transfers on child protection

This study investigates the effect of income inequality on the availability of child protection services at the municipality level in Finland, by considering the moderating role of intergovernmental transfers. Utilising macro-level panel data from 293 municipalities over the peri...

Do social protection expenditures predict female immigrant entrepreneurship? Evidence from the European Union

Purpose In debates on immigrant integration, we move beyond the “welfare magnet hypothesis” by examining whether the host country's social welfare system, as part of its institutional environment, influences female immigrant entrepreneurship (FIE) through mechanisms of risk buffe...