Lucas Koltermann

Operational Degradation of Flooded Lead–Acid Storage Under Frequency Containment Reserve: Long-Term Evidence from a Hybrid Multi-Technology BESS

Flooded lead–acid batteries continue to operate in utility-scale battery energy storage systems (BESSs), yet their long-term degradation under grid-frequency regulation remains poorly characterized by field evidence. This paper presents an eight-year, multi-indicator degradation...