Hiroshi Kageyama

Procedure-Specific Postoperative Drainage Strategy in Transforaminal Full-Endoscopic Spine Surgery: A Quantitative Evaluation of Drain Output and Endoscopic Bleeding Findings

Background Postoperative drain use after transforaminal full-endoscopic spine surgery (TF-FESS) remains controversial, and procedure-specific criteria are not well defined. This study aimed to determine whether postoperative bleeding risk—quantified by postoperative drain output...